The Upanishads

A collection of 112 texts, the Upanishads (meaning “Sitting Near a Sage or Teacher”) are a key theological and philosophical work in Hinduism. Using proverbs and dialogues between sages and other individuals, they convey ideas about the divine (called the “Spirit” or “Brahman” throughout the texts), faith, spirituality, and the unity of existence that are still at the heart of Hindu belief and Indian philosophical thought to this day. These include the importance of awareness of Brahman even over religious ritual; karma and the cycle of death and rebirth; how an individual soul can transcend the cycle of rebirth through an awareness of Brahman and the Atman (the eternal self); and how Brahman exists both beyond and within the universe and every living being. The texts thus explore themes such as Ultimate Reality Within the Individual, The Importance of Knowledge in Spiritual Liberation, The Cyclical Nature of Life and Death, and The Guidance of Moral Principles.

The Upanishads were originally written in the ancient language of Sanskrit. While the exact dating of the Upanishads is a matter of scholarly debate, the oldest texts are dated as far back as the 9th century BCE and the newest texts are believed to have been written as late as the 16th century CE. Many of the authors of the texts are unknown. They were either anonymous or their authorship is credited to a legendary sage.

Juan Mascaró’s 1965 translation of the Upanishads into English made Indian religions and philosophy more accessible to Western audiences, influencing the New Age movement and encouraging comparisons between Indian and Western religious and philosophical thought by both academics and spiritual seekers. Even though Mascaró only translated excerpts from the Upanishads and was not the first English translator of the texts, his version popularized the Upanishads in the English-speaking world. 

This study guide uses the 1965 edition published by Penguin Books.

Summary

There are 13 Upanishads included in Juan Mascaró’s translation. The first, “Isa Upanishad,” introduces a few of the most important concepts throughout the entire Upanishads, specifically the oneness of the entire universe with God. The texts teach that the divine or “the Spirit” (49) exists within every living being, and personal knowledge of the divine unhindered by material things can liberate oneself from the cycle of death and reincarnation. Such wisdom also saves a soul from the threat of falling into “regions of utter darkness” (49). 

The “Kena Upanishad,” which describes God or the Spirit as Brahman, further details that Brahman is both something that can be easily felt but is also beyond the reach of our bodily senses and even intellect. The “Katha Upanishad” takes the form of teachings given to the sage Nachiketas by Yama, the god of death, who explains the nature of Brahman and the Atman, the eternal self every person has, and the secrets of the afterlife.

The “Prasna Upanishad” is written as a series of questions posed by students to the sage Pippalada. In his answers, Pippalada explains the origin of life, the elements composing the human body, and the relationship of the body to Brahman and the Atman. The “Mundaka Upanishad” argues that good deeds and faithfully following religious ritual are not enough to ensure one’s liberation. Instead, one must have knowledge of Brahman. The “Mandukya Upanishad” explains the significance of the mantra “OM.” Through yoga and meditation, “Svetasvatara Upanishad” advises the believer to comprehend the “Wheel of Brahman” (94) that represents all of reality.

The “Maitri Upanishad” discusses sleep and dreaming and how both relate to the existence of Brahman and the Atman. The text also explains how one’s actions and knowledge in life can shape one’s fate in the afterlife. The “Kaushitaki Upanishad” is a collection of sayings that compare Brahman to the sun and to the breath of life. The “Taittiriya Upanishad” describes important prayers and characteristics a believer should strive toward. 

The “Chandogya Upanishad” explains the origin of the mantra “OM” and elaborates on the nature of Brahman and the Atman. The “Brihad-Aranyaka Upanishad” has the king Ajatasataru and the sage Yajñavalkya teach what happens to one’s consciousness when asleep. The sage also describes how one should strive for knowledge, not material possessions. Finally, the “Supreme Teaching” discusses karma, which is how one’s actions shape one’s being and thus one’s fate, and the importance of understanding Brahman, the Atman, and the unity of all existence.