Pragmatism: A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking

Pragmatism: A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking (1907) is a philosophical work by the American philosopher and psychologist William James. It consists of eight lectures originally delivered at the Lowell Institute in Boston and at Columbia University in New York. James is closely associated with the philosophy of pragmatism, originally formulated by the American philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce, and this book is considered the major statement of the ideas and principles of this branch of philosophy.

James sees pragmatism as a way of evaluating and mediating between different philosophies. It is particularly useful for reconciling the claims of science with those of religion and morality. Pragmatism considers philosophies useful based on how they are implemented. Ultimately, James argues that “any idea—philosophical, political, social, or otherwise—has validity only in terms of its experiential and practical consequences” (back cover). James relates this attitude to radical empiricism, or an emphasis on experience as a test for truth. He argues that different systems of thought should be tested in the “marketplace” of experience instead of our relying on abstract rationalist or idealist conceptions of what is true. In the eight lectures, James expounds core pragmatic ideas and describes what happens when the pragmatic method is applied to various areas of thought, such as metaphysics and religion. James believes that pragmatism is the best philosophy for modern times because it meets the human need for a complete synthesis of thought, embracing reason, experience, science, and religious faith. James emphasizes that pragmatism is not a completely new philosophy, rooted in common sense and in methods that past philosophers used to explore truth. Because it emphasizes action and free will, pragmatism allows human beings considerable power in defining their world and determining the future.

Written in an accessible and conversational style, Pragmatism is considered one of James’s key works and one of the most significant American philosophical texts. Two years after the publication of Pragmatism, James published a follow-up work, The Meaning of Truth: A Sequel to Pragmatism, in which he responded to various criticisms of pragmatic thought. Both works are still widely read and analyzed today by students of philosophy.

This guide refers to the Dover Philosophical Classics edition of Pragmatism.

Summary

In Lecture 1, James introduces pragmatism as an appealing middle ground between two mainstream approaches of European philosophy. The first is the approach that emphasizes reason, intellectualism, idealism, and optimism, often grounded in religious thought. Its opposite is empirical and rooted in sensations; this approach tends to be materialistic, pessimistic, and fatalistic, as well as skeptical of religious faith. James argues that most people want a philosophical method that is firmly anchored in empirical facts, while still being open to morality and religious faith. James presents pragmatism as a philosophy that meets both demands.

Lecture 2 defines pragmatism. It is not a closed system of principles or doctrines; rather, it helps to reconcile opposing philosophical positions by making us look away from the abstract meanings of ideas and concentrate instead on their practical consequences, thus rooting philosophy in action rather than beliefs. In doing so, pragmatism makes us aware of the way ambiguities in language affect our perception of reality. James stresses that pragmatism is not an entirely new philosophy, but a basic set of tools that philosophers have used throughout history.

In Lecture 3, James delves into some particular philosophical problems, including substance versus accident, materialism versus theism, and free will. James concludes that in all these issues, what counts is “what do the alternatives promise” (ix). From a pragmatic perspective, a theistic universe with a permanent moral order is preferable to a materialistic or deterministic one. In Lecture 4, James considers the age-old philosophical conflict between the one and the many; he concludes that “pragmatically considered, the world is one in many ways” (x). Thus, pragmatism steers a middle course in the dispute.

Lectures 5 and 6 deal with questions of knowledge and truth. James argues in Lecture 5 that common sense represents the stock of basic beliefs and intuitions that mankind evolved over the centuries, before philosophy and science arrived on the scene. Because knowledge is always evolving, pragmatism sees the universe as a work in progress instead of a completed system, and we should be wary of regarding any discovered truth as absolute and final.

In Lecture 6, James explicitly defines how pragmatism views truth. In place of the older theory that truth means the agreement of the mind with reality, pragmatism stresses consistency with previous truths and with language. Truth is a process or something achieved by us, rather than a simple “agreement” with what exists; thus, not only is truth the same as good, but also truth grows along with our knowledge. James is what is known in philosophy as a fallibilist, seeing all existential truths as open to revision given new information.

James develops the idea of the human contribution to truth and reality in Lecture 7, identifying this view with humanism and emphasizing man’s ability to creatively affect reality. In the final lecture, James arrives at a pragmatist view of religion; he argues that pragmatism is melioristic, seeing salvation as possible, albeit conditional, and thus steers a sensible middle course between extreme optimistic and pessimistic views of the destiny of humanity.